An option is a derivative contract that grants the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset at a specified strike price on or before a stated expiration date, in exchange for a premium paid to the seller (writer) of the option. Option terminology Call option A call option…
(This article presents how futures differ from forwards, why clearing and margining matter for performance assurance, how pricing links to carry and yield curves, and how settlement conventions and market structure shape real-world hedging and trading outcomes.) A futures contract is a standardized agreement traded on an exchange to buy or sell an underlying asset…
IntroductionA forward contract is a customized agreement between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a predetermined price on a specified future date, widely used for hedging price or rate risk in commodities, currencies, and interest rates. It is an over‑the‑counter (OTC) instrument, typically with bilateral credit exposure and flexible terms tailored to…
A derivative is a financial contract whose value is linked to an underlying asset, index, rate, or benchmark; it is used for hedging risk, speculation, and arbitrage, and trades either on exchanges or over the counter depending on standardization and customization needs. What is a derivative? A derivative is an agreement between parties that derives…
Risk-Based Supervision (RBS) in India represents a shift from checklist-style inspections to a forward-looking, risk‑centred, and proportionate supervisory regime that prioritizes the most material risks to safety, soundness, and systemic stability. Background RBS emerged globally after the global financial crisis exposed the limits of compliance-heavy and backward‑looking inspections, pushing supervisors to focus on inherent risks,…
Basel III strengthens bank resilience through complementary safeguards: risk-based capital with usable buffers, a simple non‑risk‑based leverage backstop, and liquidity standards that protect short‑term and structural funding positions across cycles and systemic stress. General Basel III introduced higher‑quality capital, explicit buffers, a leverage ratio, and two liquidity ratios to remedy weaknesses revealed in the global…
Market discipline under Pillar 3 complements minimum capital (Pillar 1) and supervisory review (Pillar 2) by enabling informed market scrutiny through clear, consistent, and comparable disclosures that incentivize prudent risk‑taking and sound governance. It strengthens external accountability by giving investors, creditors, analysts, and counterparties the information needed to monitor risk profiles and influence behavior through…
Stress testing within ICAAP is a forward‑looking, governance‑anchored discipline that evaluates a bank’s resilience under adverse yet plausible conditions and informs capital planning, risk appetite, and early corrective actions aligned with supervisory expectations under Pillar 2 and the PCA framework. Role and objective Stress testing in ICAAP assesses whether internal capital and liquidity are adequate…
The Supervisory Review Process (SREP) and the Internal Capital Adequacy Assessment Process (ICAAP) together ensure that banks maintain capital commensurate with their risk profile and operate above minimums using forward‑looking, proportionate, and well‑governed processes, with supervisors empowered to review, challenge, and intervene early where needed. Objective of Pillar 2 Pillar 2 aims to ensure banks…
Operational risk capital ensures that banks can absorb losses arising from process failures, people, systems, or external events, with Basel’s current framework centering on a standardized, data-driven approach anchored in business indicators and internal loss experience. This article outlines definitions, methodologies, legacy approaches (BIA/SA/AMA), key shortcomings, and the new standardized approach with business indicators, risk-weighted…
